how ccp expect us to mine if the gankers keep killing us?
i was mining in a 0.3 system and some idiot in a omen killed me
those psychopaths like to grief people that cant shot back because its easy
I’m not a fan of PVP in this game…
this is my proposal for changes to improve mining
Several generations of reactors are commonly distinguished. Generation I reactors were developed in 1950-60s, and the last one shut down in the UK in 2015. Generation II reactors are typified by the present US and French fleets and most in operation elsewhere. So-called Generation III (and III+) are the advanced reactors discussed in this paper, though the distinction from Generation II is arbitrary. The first ones are in operation in Japan and others are under construction in several countries. Generation IV designs are still on the drawing board and will not be operational before the 2020s.
Over 85% of the world’s nuclear electricity is generated by reactors derived from designs originally developed for naval use. These and other nuclear power units now operating have been found to be safe and reliable, but they are being superseded by better designs.
Reactor suppliers in North America, Japan, Europe, Russia, China and elsewhere have a dozen new nuclear reactor designs at advanced stages of planning or under construction, while others are at a research and development stage. Fourth-generation reactors are at the R&D or concept stage.
So-called third-generation reactors have:
- A more standardised design for each type to expedite licensing, reduce capital cost and reduce construction time.
- A simpler and more rugged design, making them easier to operate and less vulnerable to operational upsets.
- Higher availability and longer operating life – typically 60 years.
- Further reduced possibility of core melt accidents.*
- Substantial grace period, so that following shutdown the plant requires no active intervention for (typically) 72 hours.
- Stronger reinforcement against aircraft impact than earlier designs, to resist radiological release.
- Higher burn-up to use fuel more fully and efficiently, and reduce the amount of waste.
- Greater use of burnable absorbers (‘poisons’) to extend fuel life.
* The US NRC requirement for calculated core damage frequency (CDF) is 1x10-4, most current US plants have about 5x10-5 and Generation III plants are about ten times better than this. The IAEA safety target for future plants is 1x10-5. Calculated large release frequency (for radioactivity) is generally about ten times less than CDF.
The greatest departure from most designs now in operation is that many incorporate passive or inherent safety features* which require no active controls or operational intervention to avoid accidents in the event of malfunction, and may rely on gravity, natural convection or resistance to high temperatures.
* Traditional reactor safety systems are ‘active’ in the sense that they involve electrical or mechanical operation on command. Some engineered systems operate passively, eg pressure relief valves. They function without operator control and despite any loss of auxiliary power. Both require parallel redundant systems. Inherent or full passive safety depends only on physical phenomena such as convection, gravity or resistance to high temperatures, not on functioning of engineered components, but these terms are not properly used to characterise whole reactors.
Another departure is that most will be designed for load-following. European Utility Requirements (EUR) since 2001 specify that new reactor designs must be capable of load-following between 50 and 100% of capacity. While most French reactors are operated in that mode to some extent, the EPR design has better capabilities. It will be able to maintain its output at 25% and then ramp up to full output at a rate of 2.5% of rated power per minute up to 60% output and at 5% of rated output per minute up to full rated power. This means that potentially the unit can change its output from 25% to 100% in less than 30 minutes, though this may be at some expense of wear and tear.
A feature of some new designs is modular construction. The means that many small components are assembled in a factory environment (offsite or onsite) into structural modules weighing up to 1000 tonnes, and these can be hoisted into place. Construction is speeded up.
Many are larger than predecessors. Increasingly they involve international collaboration.
However, certification of designs is on a national basis, and is safety-based
Another feature of some new designs is modular construction. Large structural and mechanical sections of the plant of up to 1000 tonnes each are manufactured in factories or on site adjacent to the plant and lifted into place, potentially speeding construction.
A contrast between the 1188 MWe Westinghouse reactor at Sizewell B in the UK and the modern Westinghouse AP1000 of similar power illustrates the evolution from 1970-80 types. First, the AP1000 footprint is very much smaller – about one-quarter the size, secondly the concrete and steel requirements are lower by a factor of five*, and thirdly it has modular construction. A single unit has 149 structural modules broadly of five kinds, and 198 mechanical modules of four kinds: equipment, piping & valve, commodity, and standard service modules. These comprise one-third of all construction and can be built offsite in parallel with the onsite construction.
* Sizewell B: 520,000 m3 concrete (438 m3/MWe), 65,000 t rebar (55 t/MWe);
AP1000: <100,000 m3 concrete (90 m3/MWe, <12,000 t rebar (11 t/MWe).
At Sanmen and Haiyang in China, where the first AP1000 units were grid connected in August 2018, the first module lifted into place weighed 840 tonnes. More than 50 other modules used in the reactors’ construction weigh more than 100 tonnes, while 18 weigh in excess of 500 tonnes.
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